Karachi Stocks Analysis
Karachi Stocks Analysis
Women’s Education in Modern Times
Women’s Education in Modern Times
The voice of the working woman “a document of U.N.O. 1982 makes a significant stoical statement” women make up 50% of the world’s population. Comprise 33.3% of the official labour force, perform nearly 66.6% of all working hours, receive 10% of the world’s income & own less than 1% of world properly. This alone justifies, serious, positive, down to earth policy on empowerment of women. It is also true that women of late, have made their presence felt, with a difference. In a male dominated society in all the spheres of work.
Including decision making areas of Government. There is a vast have proved their excellence. But area, where women is in shill considered complementary to man’s domain. They are shill suffering to. Most of own people are content to precedes image of our women prove then individually. Thus a became an age old concept enshrined in the man individuated our same powers/veer permits.
Golden, as embodiment of shakh, Durga, Shikago, M.A. Saraswati, riches M. Laxmi & values MA Sita & many more. They clean, that our religion is safe in their hands. They obey their comment.
What is needed is attitudinal change. Let than be treated as individuals, on far with them. Let than not be content to be called as a good mother, good wife, a good daughter. Let then be also treated as a good partner.
Article 14, 15, 16 of the contribution of India guarantee equality before law, equal protection of law and equality of opportunity to all Indian citizen. It prohibits discrimination against any citizen on growls of religion caste, Sex. It premeds equally of opportunity to all.
This can be possible only if attitudes of men & women, change. When we folk of very slowly. We are made to rewards.
It has been proved beyond doubt, that women have proved them selves, in all spheres & this has to be accepted without any reservation. The men folk of the family and the society as a whole need to given encouring patronageto their efforts. They need to be allowed work with dignity. Creation of warm and respectful atmosphere 5 the need of times. It 5 time, the is more sensitive to her role, as a mother and wife man should achieved and willing share in their domeshe obligations.
Let it be accepted as a necessary prevision and be not viewed as an encroachment on their right.
In addition of national policy on women, most of the state level have framed state policy. The state of Madhya Pradesh has stated in it policy state mal that if shall endeaun is social structure based on justice and equality. When women can react without any obi function & get the benefit of resources available at different ladder/resource.
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The issue of women and social change in India is not as simple as it appears. Historical contingencies have been an important factor in changing our society. Women no less played a crucial role, given the limitations imposed in each period, in bringing salient changes.
With the coming of Aryans, patriarchy got well established even before the varna became caste. The daughter was not greeted as was the son in the Vedic period. Various sacrifices were performed for the birth of a son. The Atharva Veda implored, “The birth of a girl grant it elsewhere, here grant a boy.” Women were blessed to be mothers of “heroic sons”. Vivekananda possessing the Vedic mind in this century thought, that the educated girls, “will inspire their husbands with noble ideals and be mothers of heroic sons”.
Despite the patriarchal onslaught women did challenge the world view of their periods. While Gargi, Maithreyi, Apala, etc., did so in the Vedic period Sita, Draupadi etc., did in the Epic period. When Sita is said to have spurned Ram and moved into the earth, what more rebellion do we expect. It was a non-violent blow to patriarchy. King Ashoka had to face brave women in the battle of kalinga which changed him thoroughly. The coronation of Razia Begum as Sultana in the early medieval period was no less an event which angered the Turks. Mirabai flouted the patriarchal norms of the Rajputana, even though for a male deity. Noorjahan and Jahanara’s role in the Mughal times cannot be easily forgotton. Come Modern period and reminiscent it gets of Rani of Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Pandita Ramabai etc. Truly, history has been his-story and not her story. No wonder many important contributions of women have been neglected and ignored. These women (and many more whom history has gulped), though few, are those from whom the present day feminists draw inspiration.
(i) Reform Movement : It was in the 19th Century that enlightened men like Ram Mohun Roy, Dayananda Saraswati, Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyoti Bhai Phule, Govind Ranade, Maharishi Karve, Bhandarkar etc., championed women’s cause. But most of these social reformers wanted to improve the position of women within the family as wives and mothers and not to expand their role in society. Their micro-productive (domestic) role as nurturants was recognized by Gandhi and stretched to the public space.
(ii) Nationalist Movement : Gandhi’s whole philosophy of non-violence was drawn from the life of Indian women, who quietly, ungrudgingly bore all insults and beating of their wayward husbands in order to reform them.
Gandhi has to be given the credit for involving women in the nationalist movement. He was the first mass-mobiliser who saw the potential of women for an organized movement.
Under his guidance in 1931, in the Karachi annual session, the Congress Party passed a formal resolution committing itself to the political equality of Indian women much before their European sisters had even won the right to vote.
(iii) Women’s Movement: After Independence, the Constitution came in force in 1950 proclaiming equality between the sexes, among others. Five year plans started from 1951 establishing Central Social Welfare Board and Mahila Mandals. Despite these and many other measures, the Report of the Committee on the Status of Women (submitted in 1974) pointed out that dynamics of social change and development had adversely affected women and they manifested all sings of a backward group, that is, declining sex-ratio, lower life-expectancy, higher infant and maternal mortality, declining work participation, increasing illiteracy, rising migration etc.
The tabling of the Report and the International decade for women (1975-1985) hightened the awareness of people on the plight of Indian women. Women’s movement for freedom from patriarchal practices and oppression, started. For the first time unlike other movements a movement of women sprouted, which saw them as individuals in their own right. It was no more men crusading for women’s issues but women and some men for women’s issues. Lots of women’s organisations emerged which aimed at conscientising every one on women’s issues and collectivizing experiences of the oppressed women to channelise the urge for change in the position of women in all spheres. This new consciousness gave rise to not only feminist (women and men) activists but also feminist-activist-researchers. And a whole body of literature appeared and continues to pour day in and day out.
What awakened and brought together women’s organisations all over the country to fight against oppression of women was the Mathura rape case, in 1980. Soon the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983 was passed penalizing custodial rape.
No wonder, less than 35% of our women are literate and only about 4% go on to receive higher education. 85% of women workers are still sedimented in the unorganized sector where the legal measures have no meaning for them.
The plight of Indian women continues to be a matter of concern. What the Constitution proclaims for women, the reality springs up by opposing the very tenets, principles, ideals of the Constitution. A siege has been laid on women. They have been captured by the very institutions which attempt to safeguard and protect their lives and interests namely family, marriage, educational institutions, employment establishments, political mega-structures, policing outfits, legal machinery etc. Whether it is child marriage, infanticide, feticide, wife battering, sati, widowhood, bigamy, polygenic, sexual harassment, physical torture, mental cruelty, rape by intimates, strangers, police, army, para-military, dowry extortions, dowry murders, pre-marital and post marital suicides etc., all these forms of oppression of women map and draw the contours of our decadent capitalist, consumerist, corrupt, casteist, communal, patriarchal society.
Be it any denomination, Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Sikh etc., the forms of oppression of women may vary but the content is same excruciatingly, over-powering, emaciating and agonizing. The question is not merely of women being killed and murdered but also of the on-going throttling and murder of various emotions, ambitions of millions of young girls, that is, girl-children and women which take place on each day from sunrise to sunset.
This does not mean that women have reconciled to this fact. The discontent is brewing amongst oppressed women. The young girls of rural and urban areas have started voicing their likes and dislikes. The employed women, though encountering role-conflict, have learnt to become firm and assertive. They now seek and demand their husband’s cooperation in performing household chores. Many men have started correcting the wrongs done by them and begun to question the patriarchal privileges given to them. So what if 90% families are traditional. What matters is the 10% families that are egalitarian, cutting across religion, caste and class barriers.
Marriages are not always arranged now. Lots of choice marriages (love marriages, love-cum-arranged marriages) are taking place (free from dowry and gifts). Men are tending to be more considerate. Further, marriage is no more taken to be the only option. Many women are preferring to remain single, while still many other couples have started living together without marriage. All possibilities are being explored to establish an equalitarian, and depatriarchised existence. Regard for feminal kinspeople too is increasing.
The awakening and liberation of the top five or six percent of our women is beginning to have a trickle down effect in the sense of registering a greater awareness of women’s problems and restrictive social practices that affect their growth and potential. Today due to them, women’s cause has acquired a moral and political legitimacy. Due to this today hardly any one may stand up publicly and oppose women’s fundamental rights or deny them political participation, notes Mrinal Pande.
Though in fewer numbers women have been entering the traditional male bastions, as scientists, pilots, police, engineers, architects apart from being bureaucrats, teachers, doctors, businesswoman, entrepreneurs, journalists etc. These women with one voice proclaim together with Malan Devi, involved in the Bodh Gaya Land Struggle Movement:
“Earlier we had tongues but could not speak. We had feet but could not walk. Now we have got the strength to speak and to work”.
“INDIAN WOMEN : THE POWER TRAPPED”
INDU PRAKASH SINGH
Galaxy Publications
SFS Flat No.3, Pocket B, Alaknanda, (Ganga Apartments)
Kalkaji, New Delhi-110019
The early 19th century opened a new chapter which was a landmark in Indian history. The arrival of foreign missionaries, introduction of English language and other outside influences brought new factors to bear on the Indian people especially the 1intelligentia. English education was sought for professional development in the process of remodeling the society and women received ample attention. Social reformers and administrators as well realized that social transformation could take place only by the spread of education to women. Primary education was in good progress and the enrollment of girls in schools increased during 1921-34. But it slowly declined due to certain difficulties like lack of finance and inefficiency.
Higher education was also fairly good and it was the University of Madras which first admitted two women students first in the year 1876 followed by University of Calcutta in 1878. It may be surprising to know that University of London admitted women students later only in 1897. British educationists felt the need for medical education for women after witnessing the sufferings of women during home visits.
In 1885 the national association for supplying the female media was established. The training and teaching of Indian women in the medical science was recommended. In 1916 the Lady Harding Medical College was established in Delhi. Between 1854-1902 frequent visits of many scholars and the intervention of Rajaram Mohan Roy the great social reformer led to the development of female education.
A commission was appointed to study the problems relating to the education of women since there was no satisfactory demand for women’s education. This Indian Education Commission recommended grant – in – aid schools for women and the rules were made more liberal for girls in other schools with regard to fees, prizes and scholarships. The general awakening of the people to world was I, introduction of Sarada Act and teaching of great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to phenomenol awakening among Indian women.
But for the above developments perhaps it would have taken many more years to witness any progress in women’s education.
What is Empowerment?
Empowerment strategies are varied and refer to those strategies which enable women to realize their full potentials. They consist of greater access to knowledge and resources, greater autonomy in decision making, greater ability to plan their lives, greater control over the circumstances that influence their lives and finally factors which would free them from the shackles of custom beliefs and practices. Unless they themselves become conscious of the oppression meted out to them and show initiative to push forward it would not be possible to change their status much. Some of the empowerment mechanisms could be identified as follows:
Literacy and higher education;
Better health care for herself and her children;
Higher age at marriage;
Greater work participation in modernized sector;
Necessary financial and service support for self-employment;
Opportunities for higher positions of power;
Complete knowledge of her rights; and above all
Self – reliance self respect and dignity of being a woman;
Introduction
Robert Merton while proposing the ‘Ethos of science’ sys that the institutional goal of science is the extension of certified knowledge. The technical methods employed towards this end provide the relevant definition of knowledge; ‘empirically confirmed and logically consistent predictions. Accordingly, four sets of institutional imperatives – universalism, communism, disinterestedness and organized skepticism comprise the ethos of modern science.
The first norm universalism implies the acceptance or rejection of claims entering the lists of science irrespective of the personal or social attributes of the protagonist; his race, nationality, religion, class, (we may did gender here) and personal qualities. For the purpose of this paper, we will try to review those studies on women in science that have tried to examine this norm and have shown that ‘particularism’ is very much functional within the institution of science. In addition we would also attempt to highlight the methodology adopted in studies on women in science and relate it to the issues that have been of concern to sociologists of science.
As in any subject, literature on women in science/research are found at varied levels. They can be broadly classified under three categories:
- Personal notes/impressionistic articles;
- Presentation of a particular view/idea based on opinion of like-minded activists: and
- Empirical-research based reports, articles that fall within frameworks, models of sociology of science.
However, all the three sources are important for they bring forth insights, complement each other and facilitate further research.
Nature of Discrimination
In general, all such materials try to highlight in their own way discrimination experienced by women scientists at different levels. The nature of discrimination undertaken for analysis can be broadly classified into two types:
(a) indicators of overt discrimination; and
(b) aspects of covert or subtle discrimination.
We shall look into them in some detail.
(a) Indicators of Overt Discrimination: Under this category we include such factors as are recordable and quantifiable. They can be admission application, records and final selection lists of graduate students to science programmes, allotment of financial assistance to students and criteria considered for such decisions. Once in the career, the career profile of women scientists can be reconstructed by recording the number of years they have spent in completing the doctorate degree, the number of jobs, positions they apply for, before obtaining a tenure position, number of years spent in waiting-breaks during their research degree and later, number of years in a particular position or rank befor4e obtaining promotions etc. These factors can be compared for a set of male and female cohort scientists to draw out visible discriminatory criteria.
In addition there are certain other important dimensions to a career in science which directly relate to research. These include the topics given to women scientists for their doctoral thesis, resources accessible to them for research, research productivity patterns of these scientists, their collaboration patterns and authorship details of joint publications, criteria that is operational at the time of recruitment and promotion especially when it concerns competition between equally qualified male and female scientists. Similarly, as they climb the ladder, a comparison of the number of deputations, fellowships, membership in committees and administrative responsibilities that are offered to women scientists along with their male colleagues can be made. These indicators not only reflect the extent to which women receive rewards monetarily and in terms of prestige within the institution and outside among the scientific community, but also reflect the extent to which they participate in decision-making on matters concerning research and employment.
As mentioned in the beginning, literature on women in science have been varied and sporadic. However, the issue seems to be a common concern across the globe and the same ideas are highlighted whether these are about women scientists in India, America, of France except for countries of Eastern Europe for which relevant information is not available. Looking at the quantitative compilation, we can find a number of surveys especially with reference to women scientists in America with details about their employment statistics, based on which can an analysis is attempted. A study of matched samples of women and men who have received doctorates shows that in each of the five fields ((Physics, maths, chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology) and at every level of prestige of university graduate departments women had consistently higher intelligence scores than men. Women students, it was found, receive slightly higher scores on tests of verbal facility incorporated into the nationwide GRE, but men do considerably better than women on test of quantitative skills (Zuckerman and Cole 1975). Examination of admission records however showed that members of both sexes were admitted in the same proportions as they apply. The same seemed to be true in terms of allotment of fellowships too (Astin, 1969). However these findings have to be read in a context that: (i) women in the 60’s took to higher education especially research in smaller numbers and (ii) the 1950’s and 1960’s was a boom period for sciences as they received substantial financial support from governments of respective countries. It is only much later when both these factors changed i.e. women started entering science in large numbers and scarcity of resources became a reality that criteria for allotment becomes crucial.
Several analyses have been conducted to show the slow career mobility of women in science. In one study it was found that in the U.S., female Ph. D’s are more than four times as likely as males to be unemployed and constitute only 6.6% of tenured Ph. D. faculty in the sciences (Vetter, 1980). In her analysis of productivity patterns of male and female chemists Barbara Reskin observes that the greater indeterminancy of the women’s productivity mirrors the greater unpredictability of their careers; they often held extended post-doctoral fellowships; in effect permanent non-faculty positions (Reskin 1976); changed jobs more frequently irrespective of institutional prestige (Hargens 1969). Similar findings have been highlighted by others in varied disciplines (Fidell 1970, Chubin 1974, Banerjee 1980). However, the slow career patterns of women scientists have not been studied independently but only in relation to their productivity patterns and placement in positions of responsibility.
Introduction
Development of gender planning implies taking account of the fact that women and men play different roles especially in the third world and therefore have different needs and provide both the conceptual framework and the methodological tools for incorporating gender into the planning of their socio-economic programmes. At the policy level in India the changes are visible with the advent of the United Nations Decade for Women (1975-1985). Greater stress is placed on the economic and social development of women and a greater understanding of the plight of low – income women. With welfare oriented family centered programmes which assumed motherhood as the most important or rather the only role for women the shift is towards a diversity of approaches emphasizing the productive role of women. In this paper an attempt is made to analysis the attitude and actions towards empowerment of women by the governmental and non-governmental organizations in India.
The role of Government of India in Women Empowerment
The first few plans followed a welfarist approach and treated women as recipients of aid. The first five year plan focused its attention on the problem of high infant and maternal mortality and thence undertook steps to develop school feeding schemes for children and creation of nutrition sections in the public health departments and maternity and child health centers. The focus of second plan was on the problems of women workers. Hence policies were initiated for equal pay for equal work, provision of facilities for training to enable women to compete for higher jobs and expansion of opportunities for part time employment. The main thrust of the third plan was the expansion of girls education. On the social welfare side the largest share was provided for expanding rural welfare services and condensed courses of education for adult women. The fourth plan continued to emphasise women’s education. The fifth plan gave priority for training of women in need of care and protection, women from low income families needy women with dependent children and working women.
It is only during the fifth plan a separate Bureau of Women’s Welfare and Development (WWD) was set up in 1976 as part of the erstwhile Department of Social Welfare in order to intensity the country-wide efforts launched during the International Year of the Women. The Bureau was entrusted with the major responsibility of implementing the National Plan of Action for Women besides co-ordinating the activities relating to women’s welfare and development.
The sixth plan for the first time in India’s planning history contained a separate chapter on Women and Development. To make the International Women’s Decade a success it emphasized on three strategies viz economic independence, educational advancement and access to health care and family planning. Hence variety of programmes were taken up under different sectors of development to ameliorate the socio economic status of women. In the rural development sector the IRDP gave priority to women heads of households and about 35% of total number of beneficiaries under TRYSEM were women. A new scheme viz Development of Women and Children (DWCRA) was started in 1982-83 as a pilot project in the blocks of the country. Many voluntary organizations were requested to avail funds from the government for the above schemes and benefit women. Under Science and Technology for Women varieties of activities were taken up. Projects were sponsored for development of smokeless chullahs use of solar cookers setting up of bio-gas plants and devices for improving the water purification system. A number of technology demonstration cum training centres at selected focal points all over the country were set up by the National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) to provide expertise and resources to women entrepreneurs.
During the seventh five year plan an integrated multidisciplinary approach was adopted covering employment education health nutrition application of science and technology and other related aspects in areas of interest to women. It is only during the seventh plan ‘Women Development Corporations’ were established for promoting employment generating activities for women.
Thus with the beginning of International Women’s Decade in 1975 a number of schemes were introduced and earnest efforts were made by the government to improve the status of women. Inspite of implementational loopholes theses policies strive their best to integrate women into the mainstream of society. Thus the Department of Women and Child Development being the national machinery for the development of women plays a vital role assited by the The Central Social Welfare Board and the National Institute of Public co-operation and Child Development. While the Central Social Welfare Board is an apex body with state level branches to encourage voluntary effort in the field of women’s development NIPCCD is an advisory –cum- research – cum national level training institute in the field of child development with a separate division for women’s research and development. In India legislations and programmes favouring women had never been wanting. But unfortunately the spirit behind these policies is hardly appreciated by the implementing authorities.
Voluntary Efforts and Women Empowerment in India
In serving the cause of poor and women voluntary organizations are considered to be superior to the government for certain obvious reasons. The members of a voluntary orgainsation are willing to spend time energy and even money for an activity which they think is good. This motivation and commitment make them work more sincerely for the cause when compared to government officials. The above argument does not mean that all voluntary orgtanisation are committed and sincere and all government departments are not so. There are exceptions in both. But by and large voluntary organizations are better placed when compared to the government in the dissimination of development efforts. The second advantage enjoyed by voluntary organisation is flexibility in operations. Revisions and modifications in the light of experience are possible. Thus there is feedback and learning through experience. The limited size of operations ensure efficiency and immediate accountability to the target group. Moreover a new society needs a new value system. The voluntary organisations are best suited to carry out this task. The poor the deprived and women who accept sufferings as their fate should be made to fight against exploitative forces and challenge the existing order. ‘Awareness building’ or ‘Conscientisation’ as Paule Freire would call it becomes imperative. Since any change in the ‘state quo’ would invite retaliation from the rich only an impartial autonomous body could do it. Hence voluntary organisations are best suited for this task.
International voluntary organisations normally have some common programmes which they may take up at national, state and local levels within their broad framework. Among the national voluntary organisations we have quite a bit of variety. While majority voluntary organisations concentrate on action oriented programmes, a few organize people and fight out issues without directly working for the welfare of the masses. Their strategies are slogan raising carrying out processions resorting to hunger strike and move the media government court etc to solve the issue at hand. There are certain organisations which merely train social workers or carry out research and training for meeting the personnel requirements of voluntary organisations. Some organisations are formed consisting of specialists from various branches of knowledge who organize seminars workshops and help grass root workers academics administrators etc to come together to a common platform and share their experiences and sort out issues. Among the action oriented once again we find two groups viz those started and supported by enlightened outsiders (top down) and those started by the members of the target group themselves (grass root masses) to find solutions to their problems without any outside interference (bottom-up). In the case of certain organisations though initially leadership is provided by ‘outsiders’ they become ‘insiders’ in due course.
Some NGOs keep the goal of achieving mobility i.e. they assist one particular target group and once the target group ‘takes-off’ and becomes self reliant the voluntary organisations move on the other groups. Thus they are ever dynamic in socio-spatial terms.
Some organisation are purely service oriented. But their number is coming down since many now-a-days concentrate on development programmes for the poor. But there are not many voluntary organisations which involve the target group in decision making. They are rather ‘working for the poor’ type than ‘working with the poor’ type.
Voluntary organisations may or may not take up all kinds of activities such as activities which promote social welfare activities which induce social reform activities which provide economic self sufficiency and activities for the promotion of social mobility. Whether each organisation carries out all the above activities or specializes only on a few depends on factors such as the ideology and philosophy of the agency founder location of the agency availability of funds and its image among the public.
- Apart from the regular well established registered societies there are some ‘informal groups’ which work with ‘workers’ of a particular trade such as construction workers, workers in stone quarries, agricultural labourers etc. who help them to realize and appreciate the causes for their present predicament. Thus their main strategy is ‘conscientisation’. They help them to identify their problems and organize movements for struggle against those responsible for the identified problems. Not all organisations are secular or non-party based. The leftist groups do not normally aim for publicity since they feel that outsiders may intentionally divert the attention or perhaps even influence the methodology. Moreover such groups normally do not believe in foreign funding and developmental programmes through such outside funding. Their main aim is to ‘awaken’ the poor and fight against the existing system rather than easing their poverty through economic programmes in which case no efforts is taken to change the social order which perpetuates the existing social evils. So according to them the best way is to equip the poor to find their own salvation.
Thus there are heterogeneous groups-some engaged in consistent activity some in sporadic actions the actions themselves ranging from those which providing welfare activities to those which aim at structural change. Though it is true that voluntary organisations have come a long way from mere service providers to development oriented dynamic entities they are not free from criticisms.
There are organisations which were started on a very small scale but grew up to unmanageable size taking up multiple activities to earn national level recognition and fame. Unfortunately many among them have failed to develop second line leadership and thus are slowly fading away. A few have failed to keep their size within manageable limits and hence have become inefficient units grip over their activities.
It has been found from the history of voluntary organisations in India that any organisation which functions on the basis of a specific ideological framework finds it difficult to promote second line leadership since the second and subsequent generation of leaders hardly agree on the ideology of the pioneers. They feel that the ideology does not suit the changing times.
Another weakness that afflicts many voluntary organisations in India is their inability to move from micro projects to macro projects. Many voluntary organisations are successful in carrying out small projects. As the needs of development of a local community cannot be compartmentalized and the growth of one unit depends on the presence and growth of other allied complementary units an integrated approach is a must which most voluntary organisations are unable to establish.
Institutions building is an important function in which many voluntary organisations have failed miserably. This refers to continuous articulation of the philosophy vision and mission of the organisation among the members especially the volunteers. The rules and regulations and the system of functioning should be institutionalized. The democratic character of an institution can be kept up only by institutionalizing the execution strategies and programmes.
It is also true that in the case of external interventionists (the educated elite working among the poor) the volunteers are unable to get rid of their paternalistic superior attitude. They always want the target group to be dependent and subservient. They fail to appreciate the point that the target group is capable of taking over the tasks and performing well. It is also felt that Paulo Freier’s conscientisation’ has been more misunderstood than understood. Voluntary organisations simply fail to acknowledge that the target group has problem solving skills. They continue to supply prepackaged information on problem solving methods and behaviour (Krishnakumar and Ross Kidal 1981) Thus many voluntary organisations do not know when to enter how to enter why to enter and at what stage to withdraw. (Pandy & Siva Mohan 1990).
Another important drawback which afflicts many voluntary organisations is lack of funds. For many the budgets are so small that there is no provision for technical personnel. Consultancy services are also out of reach for such voluntary organisations in view of their cost. In these days when voluntary service has become highly specialized there is a dire need for the creation kof an appropriate agency to provide guidance, monitor the projects and provide counseling services and arrange financial and technical assistance to needy voluntary organisations which are groping in the dark.
Some organisations which are stared of foreign funds face the problem of extinction with the tapering off of funds. This is mainly so because they have not allotted even a single rupee for projects which would generate funds for future existence and growth. They have also not taken adequate efforts to mobilize the required assets and finances locally. This lack of planning and long term vision has adversely affected the growth of many voluntary organisations. In the recent past unemployment has forced the youth to start voluntary organisations. Such organisations lack dedication and true spirit of volunteerism. Such organisations have hardly obtained public confidence.
Introduction
Women entering into the business field is not something uncommon today. Though it is very difficult to single out the reason for the emergence of women entrepreneurship in the recent past, it is a fact that more and more women evince interest in choosing business as a career. The following are considered to be the major contributory factors: the influence of women’s movement, changing psychological attitude of women, the need to maintain a decent standard of living amidst the rising cost of living, gender discrimination in the labour market, restricted vertical mobility and above all the rising aspirations of women to lead an independent assertive life, and finally facilities offered to women for starting enterprises. Upper middle class and middle class women with the required education and information are comparatively better off in venturing into business when compared to the poor illiterate, marginalized women. While the former, with the support of other members in the family do have something to offer as ‘security’ obtain loan, the latter group of women have nothing to pledge or offer as security. These women who invariably find employment in the informal sector face problems such as job insecurity, meager wages and exploitation. Gross unemployment and underemployment suffered by them have forced these women to take up self employment, and wherever women have formed ‘groups’ they have successfully solved the problems like risk, finance and marketing in their self-employment. Women’s initiative with regard to business, is the main focus of this study.
The Need for Fostering Self-Employment Among Women
Women are trying their level best to attain equality in various ways which are different over time and among societies. After the World War II, a large number of women in western countries resented their deprived status. There was a general awakening among women about their secondary status. They do follow various strategies to overcome subordination and to fight against gender related disadvantages directly and indirectly. Self employment is one among the many strategies and is considered to be the best strategy since simultaneously it helps to change women’s own self perception and also helps to attain social status.
The authors would like to thank the authorities of Working Women’s Forum and the respondents for their kind co-operation.
During the post-war period, there was a general tendency to confront subordination, through collective means like women’s movements. Women’s movements helped the women to get-together, to discuss their problems and to develop confidence. In women’s movements, only the high class women had the opportunity to sort out issues pertaining to their status as perceived by them and women of lower strata were left out.
Although labour movements tried to improve the status of women in various societies, their achievements were very limited. Only a few women joined the trade union. Most of the women did not participate in it. Even in trade union, men dominated the scene and they occupied all executive posts. Hence, collective strategies to improve the economic status and occupational position of women were very much limited.
The other possibility is individual strategy. According to Goffee and Scase there are two major ways through which women can tackle subordination i.e. through the pursuit of career and through business. (Robert Goffee and Richard Scase 1985). Women are generally concentrated in low paid jobs, and secondary sector occupations and hence the opportunities to climb up are very limited. Their success and upward mobility in career are much restricted. Only a few women occupy the managerial or executive position.
Female business proprietorship, is an attempt to tackle this kind of subordination, Female proprietorship provides economic independence to women and at the same time they directly enter the main stream and do not remain in the periphery. Especially in developing countries, women proprietors are successful in obtaining material independence from men and this economic independence provides a basis for female solidarity. In these circumstances, individual action fosters collective action to combat subordination.
Collective Endeavour: Choice of the Area and Sample
The middle class educated women, though face multifaceted problems in undertaking business ventures do enjoy certain advantages like education, access to information, credit worthiness, exposure etc. over the poorer women. The poor, downtrodden women inspite of their shortcomings, are no less competent the upper class women in self employment is amply borne by empirical reality where they have taken up self employment such as snacks vending, pickle making, papad making, tailoring, vegetables/fruits vending etc., in order to supplement family income. One may argue whether these are comparable to the large scale modern trades, taken up by educated women. One has to agree that these enterprises run by poor women are tiny, risks are minimum and do not call for innovative, novel sales strategy etc. But still to the extent, goods remain unsold or perish, they face the risk of loss and even if it is a small amount, it matters much for these women who have no access to finance.
Though there are innumerable home based producers in India operating on their own, the researchers deliberately went for samples assisted by an NGO (Non Government Organisation) for the following reasons:
a) There is consistent business activity in the case of enterprises, which receive help from an NGO when compared to units not assisted by any NGO.
b) Identification of micro enterprise owners is too difficult since they are highly scattered.
c) NGO intervention has benefited these tiny enterprises in what way? Can this example be replicated in other areas so as to involve more women who belong to the lower rung of society? This is the question, which the researcher tries to answer through this case study.
The main finding of this case study is women of lower strata need a catalyst organisation to help them to realize their potentials, to link them with financial institution and give them a firm footing in business. The ‘group concept’ provides necessary mental courage to withstand crises and carry on their activity without break. Moreover, the concept of group formation is the best strategy to enlighten women on certain important social issues like small family norm, healthy environment, education etc. So NGO intervention that too the type of approach that has been followed by Working women’s forum has produced very good results which are worth emulating by other NGOs also. So, with the twin objectives of analyzing the characteristic features of micro enterprises as well as, the role of NGOs in promoting group entrepreneurship among the poor women, we have preferred WWF samples over unassisted samples.
Introduction
In this paper, an attempt is made to examine the concept of empowerment of women in the wider context of gender inequality. While the phenomenon of women’s inequality is universal, its magnitude and severity vary from country to country and within a country, from community to community. This inequality manifests itself in several forms and is generally measured in terms of the status that women enjoy in society vis-à-vis men. The Population Crisis Committee (USA) using different indicators of gender inequality examined the state of women in 99 countries there was gender equality. The country coming closer to equality was Sweden with a score of 87 points out of 100, closely followed by Finland (Score 85). The countries standing lowest on the scale are Bangladesh (score 21.5 and Mali (score 26). India holds 77th place in country ranking with a score of 45.5 Sri Lanka scores 59.5 and China 58.5 points on this scale.
It is in this context that the concept of empowerment of women assumes great significance. Empowerment is envisaged as an aid to help women to achieve equality with men or, at least, to reduce gender gap considerably. Empowerment would enable women to perform certain social roles which they cannot perform without it. In the Indian situation, this would mean helping women to enjoy their constitutional and legal rights to equality. Though men and women are declared to be equal before the law and though discrimination on the basis of sex is forbidden by the constitution, it is common knowledge that women are still at a disadvantage in India in many areas of life. Indeed, one could even say that the position of women in India has not much improved since the enactment of the Constitution when it comes to the issue of gender justice. It will be therefore worthwhile to examine the concept of empowerment of women in India in the broader global perspective and then to evaluate the impact of the various women empowerment programmes in the country.
Power, the basic ingredient in the concept of empowerment, may be defined as the capacity of a person or group of persons to influence the behaviours of other even against their will. Power is exercised through a series of orders or decisions which others are to obey. Hence, decision making and its execution form the operational part in the enactment of power, As matter of fact, these are the keys to the enforcement of power.
Politics of Women’s Equality
The global situation of women’s marginality in the top decision-making bodies of the different countries raises the question whether there is any relationship between the proportion of women in parliament/legislature and progress towards women’s equality. Are conditions for women more favourable in Finland with 39 percent women legislators than, say, conditions in the US with only 10.8 percent or in UK with only 9.2 percent? Are women in Bangaladesh with 10.3 percent representation better placed than their counterparts in India with only 7.3 percent members in the legislative bodies? The general conclusion one could draw from the above situation is that increasing the proportion of women in legislative bodies ipso facto does not help women to achieve equality, or even to improve their social status unless followed by complementary inputs, the most important of which is a radical change in the social values. This will be true even if a woman is the head of the State and even if she has strong political support. The cases of Margaret Thatcher in England and Indira Gandhi in India are examples. Pakistan under Benazir Bhutto shows that the condition of women can even deteriorate under a woman Prime Minister.
Thanks to the efforts of the United Nations Organisation, all national governments have been alerted to the need for equality for their women citizens. The observation of the International Women’s Decade and the Nairobi Congress have gone a long way in impressing member nations of the imperative need for social justice to women. It is certain that the Beijing conference will not only take a stock of the issue but come out with emphatic suggestions for gender justice and gender equality.
We shall now examine the Indian situation in the matter of women’s positions in decision-making. As a result of the system of periodical elections to national, state and local bodies, women even in remote rural areas of the country are now familiar with elections though not with their mystique. As a matter of fact, many women actively participate in electioneering though only very few of them offer themselves as candidates in elections.
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